THE CHRIST HYMN

¹⁵"He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation. ¹⁶For by Him all things were created, both in the heavens and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities all things have been created through Him and for Him. ¹⁷He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together. ¹⁸He is also head of the body, the church; and He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, so that He Himself will come to have first place in everything. ¹⁹For it was the Father's good pleasure for all the fullness to dwell in Him, ²⁰and through Him to reconcile all things to Himself, having made peace through the blood of His cross; through Him, I say, whether things on earth or things in heaven." - Colossians 1:15-20 (NASB)

The Cosmic Lordship and Redemptive Acts of Christ

Introduction

Colossians 1:15-20 is a remarkable passage, brimming with theological richness and poetic beauty. It stands as a remarkable testament to the supremacy and redemptive power of Jesus Christ. It’s a passage rich in theological depth. It features poetic language. It has a strong sense of confession. This makes it a fitting candidate for an early church hymn or creedal statement.

Cosmic Lordship of Christ

In verse 15, Paul states, “He is the image of the invisible God.” This reflects a profound theological assertion about the nature and identity of Jesus Christ. This passage provides deep insight into Christology, addressing Jesus’ divinity and his relationship to God the Father. The Greek term eikōn for the English word icon, used here to describe Jesus, is significant and appears in several other New Testament passages (Col. 3:10, 2 Cor. 4:4). This term denotes a resemblance, but in the context of Jesus, it conveys a large correspondence to God himself. Jesus, as the eikōn of the invisible God, reveals God fully and perfectly. This idea aligns with other theological expressions where Jesus is depicted as the visible manifestation of God (John 1:18, 14:9, Heb. 1:3).

Hebrews 1:3 enriches our understanding by using the term charakter to describe Jesus as the “exact representation” of God’s being. This term signifies an exact imprint, emphasizing the precise and full representation of God’s nature in Jesus. The distinction between eikōn and charakter further accentuates Jesus’ role in making the invisible God visible and comprehensible to humanity.

The Restoration of God’s Image through Jesus:

Jesus’ earthly ministry was pivotal in restoring the image of God in humanity, which had been marred by sin. The fellowship that existed between God and humanity in the Garden of Eden is symbolically restored in Christ, the second Adam (Rom. 5:12-21, 1 Cor. 15:20-28, Phil. 2:6). This restoration points toward an eschatological hope where the new creation mirrors the harmonious state of Eden.

The Bible begins with the original creation in Eden and concludes with the restored creation in the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21-22). Prophecies like Isaiah 11:6-9 and eschatological visions in Revelation describe a new age where humans and animals coexist in harmony. The imagery suggests that heaven will be a renewed Eden, signifying the full restoration of God’s creation.

The firstborn of all creation

The phrase “the firstborn of all creation” uses Old Testament imagery to denote Jesus’ unique and exalted status. In Jewish tradition, the term “firstborn” (Greek: prototokos) implies preeminence, not necessarily temporal order (Exod. 4:22, Ps. 89:27). So, in Colossians, it signifies Jesus’ authority and supremacy over all creation and its rightful heir.

Rabbinic interpretations and Old Testament usage clarify that “firstborn” refers to the eldest son. This son inherits and manages the family estate. Similarly, Jesus is seen as the heir and manager of all creation, emphasizing his preeminence and dominion (Pro. 8:22). This preeminence is not to be conflated with being a created being, which would align with Gnostic heresies. Instead, it affirms Jesus’ eternal deity and unique sonship (John 1:18, 3:16-18, Col. 1:17).

Next in this text, Paul states, “For by Him all things were created” (Col. 1:16), echoing the idea that the entirety of the cosmos owes its existence to Him.

Jesus as the Agent of Creation

The phrase “for by Him all things were created” underscores Jesus’ role as the divine agent of creation. The preposition “by” emphasizes His agency, indicating that He is an active participant in the creative process. This assertion is supported by several New Testament passages. John 1:3 and 10 declare, “All things were made through Him. Without Him nothing was made that was made.” Additionally, Romans 11:36 affirms, “For from Him and through Him are all things.” It illustrates the comprehensive nature of Christ’s involvement in creation. Similarly, 1 Corinthians 8:6 proclaims that “for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things, and for whom we exist. There is also one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things.” This reinforces the idea of Jesus as the mediator of creation. Furthermore, Hebrews 1:2 states that God “has spoken to us by His Son.” He appointed His Son heir of all things. Through Him, God also created the world. Hebrews 2:10 adds, “For it was fitting that He, for whom and by whom all things exist, in bringing many sons to glory.” It was fitting that He should make the pioneer of their salvation perfect. This happened through sufferings. Together, these passages highlight the integral role of Jesus in the creation of both the material and immaterial realms. They emphasize His divine authority and foundational significance in all that exists.

Refutation of Gnostic Worldview:

Colossians 1:16’s assertion that Jesus created “all things” directly counters Gnostic dualism. Gnostic dualism posited that matter and spirit were inherently opposed. It also believed that a lesser, evil deity created the corrupt material world. This verse affirms that Jesus, who is wholly good and sovereign, created both the visible and invisible realms. It integrates the material and spiritual into a single, benevolent act of creation. This unity not only refutes the notion of a malevolent demiurge. It also emphasizes the goodness of all creation. Additionally, it highlights the holistic nature of God’s redemptive plan through Christ. So, believers are called to honor and steward the entirety of creation. They should recognize its divine origin and purpose. They are to worship in an integrated manner that reflects Jesus’ lordship over all aspects of existence.

Jesus and the Act of Creation:

Referencing Genesis 1 and 2, this verse implies that Jesus, as part of the divine Godhead, spoke the universe into existence. He also formed humanity. The verb “created” is used as both an Aorist Passive Indicative and a Perfect Passive Indicative. This highlights the completeness of Jesus’ creative work. It also shows the enduring impact of his actions. The Aorist tense signifies a definitive action with lasting consequences. The Perfect tense emphasizes the ongoing, persistent effects of this creation. It reveals the perpetual influence of Jesus’ divine act in both the past and present.

The prepositions used—in (en), through (dia), and for (eis) Jesus—highlight the Trinitarian nature of creation. They showcase the Father as the primary cause. Jesus is the active agent. All of creation ultimately exists for Jesus’ purpose and glory. This verse enumerates various categories of powers, like thrones, dominions, rulers, and authorities, which were created through Jesus. In Paul’s writings, these terms typically refer to angelic beings rather than earthly authorities (cf. Romans 8:38; 1 Corinthians 15:24; Ephesians 1:21; 3:10; 6:12; Colossians 1:16; 2:10, 15; 1 Peter 3:22), articulating a hierarchy within the spiritual realm and affirming that even exalted entities are subject to Jesus as their creator. Ancient worldviews did not separate the physical from the spiritual realm. For a biblical understanding, the spiritual dimension must be acknowledged as influencing and interacting with the material world. Additionally, Jesus is identified not only as the creator but also as the goal of creation (cf. Romans 11:36; Hebrews 2:10), signifying that all aspects of creation are intended to fulfill His purposes and bring glory to Him, positioning Him as both the origin and the ultimate aim of all existence.

See also TRANSFORMED IN CHRIST

“Thrones, Dominions, Rulers, Authorities”:

Verse 16 enumerates various categories of powers that were created through Jesus. In Paul’s writings, these terms typically refer to angelic beings rather than earthly authorities (cf. Romans 8:38; 1 Corinthians 15:24; Ephesians 1:21; 3:10; 6:12; Colossians 1:16; 2:10, 15; 1 Peter 3:22). These designations articulate a hierarchy within the spiritual realm. They affirm that even these exalted entities are subject to Jesus as their Creator.

Creation’s Ultimate Goal – “For Him”

Colossians 1:16 articulates a profound theological truth. It identifies Jesus not only as the creator but also as the ultimate goal of creation. This dual role reveals a teleological perspective that positions Jesus at both the beginning and the end of all things. We can understand more by examining this concept further. We see how the entirety of creation is intrinsically tied to Jesus’ purposes and glory.

A. Jesus as the Creator:

As previously established, Jesus is the active agent in the creation of all things, both visible and invisible. The prepositions used in Colossians 1:16—in (en), through (dia), and for (eis) Jesus—illustrate His central role in the creative process, with the Father as the primary cause and Jesus as the one through whom all things come into being.

B. Jesus as the Goal of Creation:

Biblical Affirmation:
- Romans 11:36: “For from him and through him and for him are all things. To him be the glory forever! Amen.” This verse echoes the same truth. It underscores that all creation originates from Jesus. Creation is sustained through Him and ultimately exists for His purposes and glory.
- Hebrews 2:10: “In bringing many sons and daughters to glory, it was fitting that God, for whom and through whom everything exists, should make the pioneer of their salvation perfect through what He suffered.” This passage emphasizes that all things exist for God’s purposes. Jesus is the means through which God’s salvific plan is realized.
Teleological Perspective:
- Purpose and Fulfillment: Viewing creation through a teleological lens means recognizing that everything in the universe has a purpose. From the smallest particle to the vastest galaxy, this purpose ultimately points back to Jesus. This teleological perspective provides coherence and meaning to the cosmos, instilling it with intentionality directed towards Jesus’ purposes.
- Glorification of Jesus: The ultimate aim of creation is to bring glory to Jesus. This is not merely about acknowledging His role as Creator. It is also about understanding that the entirety of existence is designed to reflect His majesty, power, and divine nature. Creation is a canvas that displays the glory of Jesus. Every facet of it is a testament to His greatness.

C. Jesus as the Consummation of All Things:

Eschatological Fulfillment:
- The notion that creation is “for Him” also points to the eschatological fulfillment. In this fulfillment, Jesus will be recognized as Lord over all. In the end, every knee will bow, and every tongue will confess that Jesus Christ is Lord (Philippians 2:10-11). This future reality underlines that the ultimate goal of all creation is the acknowledgment and worship of Jesus.
- Revelation 21-22 depicts the new heaven and new earth, where Jesus’ reign is fully realized. The consummation of history culminates in a renewed creation that perfectly glorifies Jesus, free from sin and death.
Redemption and Restoration:

Jesus’ role as the goal of creation includes the redemption and restoration of a fallen world. Ephesians 1:10 speaks of God’s plan “to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ.” This indicates that Jesus’ reconciling work through His death and resurrection aims to restore creation to its intended state. It aligns it fully with God’s original design and purpose.
Colossians 1:20 further elucidates this by declaring that through Jesus, God is reconciling all things to Himself. He is making peace through Jesus’ blood shed on the cross. This reconciliation is a crucial aspect of the ultimate goal. The harmony of creation is restored. Jesus’ lordship is fully manifested.

The phrase “for Him” in verse 16 encapsulates the profound truth that Jesus is both the origin and the ultimate aim of all creation. Everything was made through Him and for Him. This underscores that the ultimate purpose of all existence is to fulfill Jesus’ divine intentions. It also aims to bring glory to Him. This perspective reveals a universe imbued with purpose. It points back to Jesus, in whom all things find their meaning, fulfillment, and ultimate reconciliation. As believers, this understanding calls us to live in a manner that reflects His glory. We must recognize Him as the center and aim of all we do and all that exists.

The frequent recurrence of the term “all” (used seven times) throughout the verses amplifies the inclusive nature of Christ’s dominion. It emphasizes that everything in existence derives from, functions through, and is ultimately directed toward Christ. The cosmos, visible and invisible, celestial and terrestrial, exists in acknowledgment of His supreme authority.

In verse 17 Paul declares, “He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together” (cF. John 1:1-2; John 8:58; John 17:5, 24; 2 Corinthians 8:9; Philippians 2:6-7). This assertion encapsulates the belief that not only does Christ create, but He also sustains creation. His presence is what maintains order and purpose in a universe that often seems chaotic. The implications of His cosmic lordship stretch beyond mere creation. They affirm His active involvement in the unfolding narrative of history and existence.

The phrase “He is” is emphatic, marking Jesus’ self-existence, an essential attribute of divinity. This echoes the Divine Name revealed to Moses in the Old Testament (Exodus 3:14, “I AM WHO I AM”). It connects Jesus to the eternal God of Israel and affirms His deity. Such language is integral to understanding Jesus as fully divine and not simply a part of creation.

The phrase “and in Him all things hold together,” emphasizes that Jesus not only initiated creation. He also continuously maintains it. The use of the Greek verb synestēken signifies that Jesus’ sustaining activity had a decisive start in creation. It is in the Perfect Active Indicative form. This start was decisive and Its effects persist through time. This indicates an ongoing, uninterrupted action where Jesus actively keeps the universe coherent and functional.

Jesus as the Head of the Church

“He is also the Head of the body, the church” places Christ at the center of the universal church. This isn’t limited to a single congregation or denomination but encompasses all believers worldwide. Each member is a part of the body of Christ, signifying a collective unity with Jesus as the guiding force. The imagery of the church as Christ’s body highlights His leadership and life-giving authority.

Pauline Thought: Paul’s letters frequently refer to the church as the body of Christ. They emphasize unity and diversity among believers (1 Corinthians 12:12-27). We see the church as the body in several of Paul’s epistles. Only in Ephesians and Colossians is Jesus explicitly called “the Head.” This denotes His ultimate authority over the church and all things, including spiritual powers (Ephesians 1:22).

“He is the beginning”

This phrase shifts the focus from the creation of the universe to the creation of the church. Here, “beginning” signifies Christ as the origin or source of life for the new covenant people of God. He unites Jews and Gentiles, slaves and free, males and females (Colossians 3:11; Galatians 3:28). In this context, Jesus is presented as the new Adam (Romans 5:12-21). This signifies a new spiritual race defined by belief in Him.

“The firstborn from the dead”

Paul refers to Jesus as “the firstborn from the dead.” He affirms Jesus’ role in the resurrection. This highlights Jesus’ preeminence and authority. This mirrors His supremacy in creation, aligning with passages like Romans 1:4 and Revelation 1:5. Jesus’ resurrection is both a guarantee and a model of the resurrection that awaits all believers.

First Fruits Imagery: 1 Corinthians 15 speaks of Jesus as the “first fruits.” This Old Testament concept signifies the first and best part presented to God. It is a promise of what is to come. Jesus as the “firstborn” and “first fruits” emphasizes His pioneering role in the resurrection—a hope extended to all who believe.

N.T. Wright also underscores the meaning of “firstborn from the dead.” He points out that it signifies Jesus’ victory over death. It also highlights His role as a pioneer of new life. This assures believers of their future resurrection as well. Christ’s preeminence in all things, as noted by Wright, signals the cosmic scale of His lordship and authority.¹

“So that He Himself might come to have first place in everything”

This statement encapsulates the core message of Christ’s supremacy. The Father has established the Son as preeminent in all things (Ephesians 1:22-23). This ensures that Jesus holds the highest position in the church and the cosmos. He is central to every aspect of faith, life, and the church, affirming His unparalleled authority and deserving devotion.

In this verse, Paul emphasizes Christ’s foundational and supreme role in the church and the entire creation. He reminds believers that in every facet of existence, Jesus holds “first place.” He offers reassurance that we are also promised renewal and eternal life through His resurrection. This passage calls us to recognize and submit to Christ’s authority. We should also participate as integral parts of His body, the church.

The next verse 19 is powerful. It helps to express the profound theological truth about the nature and work of Jesus Christ. It states, “For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him.” This serves as a continuation of the thoughts presented in the before verses about Christ’s supremacy and deity.

Purpose Clause: “For” (Hoti)

The verse begins with the word “for” (Greek “hoti”), indicating a purpose or reason that connects the statements. Here, it communicates God’s intentional design about Jesus, revealing two main aspects:

The Fullness of Deity Revealed in Christ
- “All the Fullness to Dwell in Him”: The term “fullness” (Greek “pleroma”) is significant here. Within the context of Colossians, Paul is addressing certain false teachings, likely a form of early Gnosticism. These teachings proposed a complex hierarchy of spiritual beings. They were described as bridging the gap between a perfect God and the material world, considered evil. By using “pleroma,” Paul asserts that all the divine essence dwells in Christ. This counters any notion that intermediary beings are necessary. In Jesus, the fullness of God is completely and uniquely embodied.
- Significance of Fullness: This fullness indicates that Jesus is fully God and fully man, embodying the complete nature of God. This radical claim about Jesus, a carpenter from Nazareth, challenges preconceived notions by declaring His divine nature and authority.
- F.F. Bruce highlights that the phrase “all the fullness dwelt in Him” underscores that the totality of divine power and attributes resides in Christ. This was intended to counteract any teachings that might diminish Christ’s divine status. Such teachings might suggest that He was merely one of many intermediaries. Bruce illustrates that Paul uses this language to assert that Christ, in His own right, contains all that is necessary for reconciliation and redemption. He emphasizes His unique position as the embodiment of deity.²

Impact of verse 19

This passage’s complexity lies in its challenge to both contemporary and historical understandings of divinity and redemption. To the Colossians, it served as a powerful rebuttal to heretical teachings. These teachings divided the spiritual and material or diminished Christ’s divine authority. For modern readers, it underscores the foundational Christian belief in Jesus’ divine nature. It also highlights His central role in God’s plan for creation’s redemption.

Paul emphasizes that Jesus is not merely a moral teacher or a prophetic figure. He states that the fullness of God dwelled in Christ. Jesus is God incarnate. This is essential for understanding the nature of God and His purposes for humanity. This has significant implications for believers. They are called to see in Jesus the ultimate revelation of God. Believers also see Jesus as the primary agent of cosmic reconciliation.

Reconciliation of All Things Through Him (Colossians 1:20)

The subsequent verse ties into verse 19 by describing God’s purpose of reconciling all things to Himself through Christ. Jesus acts as the mediator between God and creation, offering peace and restoration through His sacrificial death. This reconciliation isn’t limited to humanity but extends to all creation, emphasizing the comprehensive nature of Christ’s redemptive work.

Colossians 1:20 delves into the profound theme of reconciliation accomplished through Christ. It transcends earthly and spiritual realms. It mends the division caused by sin. Let’s explore the key elements of this verse:

“And through Him to reconcile”

The term “reconcile” refers to the process of changing a state of hostility into one of peace. This change is particularly significant between estranged parties. In this case, it refers to between God and humanity. Sin created a division between the Creator and His creation, a chasm that only divine intervention can bridge. Paul emphasizes that God took the initiative in Christ to repair this broken relationship, restoring fellowship with humanity (cf. Romans 5:18-19).

Double Compound Word (Apokatallassō): This Greek word intensifies the idea of reconciliation, underscoring its thoroughness and completeness. Paul uses this emphasized form in Colossians 1:22 and Ephesians 2:16. Its root appears in 2 Corinthians 5:18-20. This consistently highlights the transformative aspect of reconciliation in Christ.

“All Things”

This phrase includes all of creation, both visible and invisible realms (cf. Romans 8:18ff; 1 Corinthians 15:27-28; Ephesians 1:22-23). It shows that through Christ, God’s reconciliation plan encompasses the entire cosmos, not just humanity. This represents a total reversal of creation’s curse, aiming for holistic restoration.

“To Himself”

The phrase suggests a return or restoration to a state of harmony with God. The reference is either to the Father or the Son. The context indicates that the Father is likely the subject of reconciliation. This is supported by passages like 1 Corinthians 15:25-28, where ultimate submission is to the Father.

“Having Made Peace Through the Blood of His Cross”

The reconciliation achieved through Christ’s sacrifice was costly. It emphasizes the extent of God’s love. It also highlights the significance of Christ’s humanity and atoning death. His “blood” signifies His real humanity and the tangible aspect of His sacrificial death (cf. Romans 5:9; Ephesians 1:7; 2:13,16).

Vicarious Atonement: Jesus’ death on the cross is presented as an act of substitution, taking upon Himself the penalty for humanity’s sin (cf. Isaiah 53; Mark 10:45; 2 Corinthians 5:21). The false teachers acknowledged His divinity but denied the real impact of His human sacrifice, which Paul refutes.

“His Cross”

Referring back to Deuteronomy 21:23, being “hung on a tree” signified a curse. In the Roman context, this referred to crucifixion. According to F.F. Bruce, the imagery of making peace through the cross points to the profound theological truth that Christ’s death was the means by which hostility was transformed into peace (cf. Colossians 2:14; Galatians 3:13; Philippians 2:8). By willingly enduring the cross, Jesus took upon Himself the curse of separation, thus facilitating restoration between God and creation. This cosmic peace, Bruce explains, counters any divide between the spiritual and material realms. It reflects Paul’s broader theological assertion of Christ’s supremacy and sufficiency in all things.³

“Whether Things on Earth or Things in Heaven”

This phrase counters any dualistic separation proposed by false teachings. These teachings elevated the spiritual realm as wholly separate from the material. Paul asserts that reconciliation through Christ addresses and unifies both realms (cf. Colossians 1:16).

Paul presents a comprehensive view of reconciliation through Christ, impacting every part of creation. Through His sacrificial death, Jesus restores peace between God and creation. He reverses the effects of sin. He brings all things back to God in harmony. This passage assures believers of God’s sweeping plan to restore the broken universe through Christ. It bridges earthly and heavenly divides. It also affirms the sufficiency of Christ’s atoning work.

Conclusion

Colossians 1:15-20 offers profound insight into the nature and work of Christ. It eloquently captures the dual themes of His cosmic lordship and redemptive mission. It presents a vision of Jesus that encompasses all of existence. Through the repetition of “all,” the passage affirms the inclusive scope of Christ’s authority and action. For modern believers, these verses offer transformative insights and practical takeaways that can deepen our understanding of faith, creation, and our relationship with God:

1. Christ’s Supremacy in Creation and the Church

Recognizing Jesus as the image of the invisible God and the active agent of creation invites us to see Him as the central figure in both the cosmos and our personal lives. This challenges us to align ourselves with His purposes, acknowledging His authority in every aspect of our existence and reaffirming His leadership in the church universally. As the head of the church, Christ calls us to unity, service, and the pursuit of holiness as components of His body.

2. The Fullness of Deity in Jesus

The passage reinforces Christ’s sufficiency to meet every need by asserting that the fullness of God dwells in Christ. It provides wisdom and guides us through all challenges. This truth counters any notion of needing supplementary experiences or intermediaries between us and God. It affirms that in Jesus, we have complete access to God’s grace and truth.

3. Reconciliation and Peace

Christ’s work on the cross transcends a mere historical event; it is the cornerstone of our faith. His sacrificial death reconciles all things to God, restoring harmony disrupted by sin. This reconciliation urges us to live as ambassadors of peace, fostering restoration and unity in our relationships and communities. It encourages us to participate actively in God’s ongoing work to renew creation.

4. Refuting False Teachings and Embracing Truth

This passage asserts and refutes false teachings that obscure the truth about Christ’s divine nature and the unity of the material and spiritual world. In contrast to Gnostic thought, it reaffirms the significance of the corporeal and divine linked in the person of Jesus. Believers must ground themselves in the truth of Christ’s cosmic lordship and His sufficiency for all things.

5. Living in Light of Our Ultimate Purpose

Ultimately, the hymn invites believers to recognize and celebrate the centrality of Christ in all things. It encourages them to live in the awareness of His preeminence and loving reconciliation. It clarifies that everything was created through Christ and for Him. As believers, we are called to live purposefully, reflecting Christ’s glory and working towards His kingdom’s values. This perspective imbues our lives with meaning, guiding our actions, relationships, and stewardship of creation.

In embracing the profound truths of Colossians 1:15-20, we are invited to recognize Jesus as supreme, sufficient, and central to all of life. By doing so, we align ourselves with God’s redemptive work in the world, seeking to glorify Christ in all things and participating in His transformative mission.

Wright, N.T. The Resurrection of the Son of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003. In this work, Wright explores the implications of the resurrection and its significance for Christian belief, including themes of Jesus’ preeminence and the assurance of future resurrection for believers. ↩︎
Bruce, F.F. The Epistle to the Colossians: An Introduction and Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984. ↩︎
Ibid., 45. ↩︎

REFERENCES:

Wright, N.T. The Letter to the Colossians. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2009.
Bruce, F.F. Colossians and Philemon: A Commentary. Green Forest, AR: New Leaf Press, 1984.
Stott, John. The Epistle to the Colossians. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994.
O’Collins, Gerald. Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Wright, N.T. The Resurrection of the Son of God. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003.
Getty, Keith, and Stuart Townend. In Christ Alone: Living the Gospel in a Post-Christian World. Nashville, TN: W Publishing Group, 2011.
Ehrman, Bart D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Stott, John. The Cross of Christ. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1986.